Zhou T., Zheng K., Sui B., Boccaccini A.R., Sun J. [160] in 20-month-old female C57BL/6J mice fed with O. keta collagen peptides (0.22%, 0.44% or 1.32% wt/wt) compared to aged control mice. Effects of chitin nano-whiskers on the antibacterial and physicochemical properties of maize starch films. In addition, the peptide KVEIVAINDPFIDL from Scomber scombrus exhibited antibacterial activity against Lactobacillus acidophilus, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria monocytogenes, M. luteus and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (MIC 0.263, 0.131, 0.131, 0.26 and, 0.263 mM, respectively) [113]. Chitosan Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report by Application (Pharmaceutical & Biomedical, Water Treatment, Cosmetics, Food & Beverage), by Region (APAC, North America, Europe, MEA), and Segment Forecasts, 20202027. In this context supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is an emerging extraction technology using solvents, mainly CO2, that has many advantages compared with traditional techniques because it uses moderate temperatures, reduces the lipid oxidation during the extraction process, allows a selective extraction of low polar lipid compounds, avoiding the co-extraction of polar impurities such as some inorganic derivatives with heavy metals [235]. Chitosan: A potential biomaterial effective against typhoid. Parenting is one of the most complex and challenging jobs you'll face in your lifetime -- but also the most rewarding. [(accessed on 5 December 2020)]; Chitin and Chitosan DerivativesGlobal Market Trajectory & Analytics. Ramakrishnan V. Extraction of Proteins from Mackerel Fish Processing Waste Using Alcalase Enzyme. Sawant R., Nagendran S. Protease: An enzyme with multiple industrial applications. Abbey L., Glover-Amengor M., Atikpo M.O., Atter A., Toppe J. Nutrient content of fish powder from low value fish and fish byproducts. Nikoo M., Benjakul S., Xu X. Antioxidant and cryoprotective effects of Amur sturgeon skin gelatin hydrolysate in unwashed fish mince. Hall J.E., Granger J.P., do Carmo J.M., da Silva A.A., Dubinion J., George E., Hamza S., Speed J., Hall M.E. Two peptides, GEIGPSGGRGKPGKDGDAGPK and GFSGLDGAKGD, were isolated from these hydrolysates and found to exhibit a significant inhibition of MMP-1, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) and p-p38. It has been found that ASC, salt soluble collagen, and pepsin-hydrolysed collagen showed both radical scavenger activity and ferric-reducing antioxidant power. In particular, Boarin-Alalde and Graciano-Fonseca [45] tried to adjust the procedure generally used to isolate these compounds from crustaceans, including a pretreatment, demineralization, deproteinization, depigmentation and deodorizing and finally deacetylation to obtain chitosan. In vitro assessment of the multifunctional bioactive potential of Alaska pollock skin collagen following simulated gastrointestinal digestion. As reported by [43], fish trypsins have been isolated from sardines, capelin, salmon, cod, bluefish, anchovy, Atlantic croaker, carp, aquacultured tilapia, ray fish, mackerel, threadfin hakeling, red snapper, smooth hound. Compared to trypsin, less work has been reported on fish chymotrypsins, isolated so far from carp, capelin, herring, Atlantic cod, rainbow trout, spiny dogfish, sardine. A mechanism based on the chitosan ability to form permeable films has been proposed at the base of the observed antifungal specific activities [209]. Mller W.E.G. In consideration of the scale of demand for seafood worldwide, the use of fish discards as a source of high-value compounds is an excellent cost recovery strategy, especially in the historical period we are experiencing. For example, ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and gel filtration (GF) are used to purify peptides based on their MW [106], ion exchange chromatography (IEC) is used to purify peptides based on their net charge and reversed-phase HPLC can be used to separate compounds based on their hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity. Uawonggul et al. In particular, Lu et al. Circular bioeconomy approaches for sustainability. Open dumping is the most common method of waste disposal in India. Salmon learning and memory effects were evaluated also by Pei et al. Cold-active fish pepsins from Atlantic cod (G. morhua) and orange roughly (Hoplostetus atlanticus) are used for caviar production from the roe of different species. Gildberg A.R., Raa J. Purification and characterization of pepsins from the arctic fish capelin (. Lu J., Hou H., Fan Y., Yang T., Li B. Effect of rosemary extract, chitosan and -tocopherol on lipid oxidation and colour stability during frozen storage of beef burgers. Mariod A., Fadul H. Review: Gelatin, source, extraction and industrial applications. These enzymes catalyse the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, through different mechanisms of action [260]. Disposal of Fish Waste after On-Farm Slaughtering. In addition, marine collagen was extracted from the fins, scales, skins, bones, head, and swim bladders of bighead carp by using collagenases, pepsin from tuna or trypsin from cod or tuna pyloric caeca [288,289,290,291,292,293]. Esposito J.Y., Cluzel C., Garrone R., Lethias C. Evolution of collagens. In the attempt of summarize the huge amount of possible applications, notable uses have been reported in the medical and pharmaceutical fields due to the proved biological activities as such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor immunoadjuvant, antithrombogenic, anticholesteremic and bioadhesivity. Salmo salar fish waste oil: Fatty acids composition and antibacterial activity. Fish collagen-based scaffold containing PLGA microspheres for controlled growth factor delivery in skin tissue engineering. Mendis E., Rajapakse N., Kim S.K. Rustad T., Storr I., Slizyte R. Possibilities for the utilisation of marine by-products. In addition, Nibea japonica swim bladders [91], yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) skin [92], Scomber japonicus bone and skin [93], shark cartilage [94] also showed antioxidant properties. Kim S.-K., Mendis E. Bioactive compounds from marine processing byproductsA review. Antioxidant and functional properties of gelatin hydrolysates obtained from skin of sole and squid. Muslim et al. Khantaphant S., Benjakul S. Comparative study on the proteases from fish pyloric caeca and the use for production of gelatin hydrolysate with antioxidative activity. Commission E. A Sustainable Bioeconomy for Europe: Strengthening the Connection between Economy, Society and the Environment. Wong H., Schotz M.C. Fish waste is not only a major environmental problem, but also a huge economic loss. Effect of Marine Collagen Peptides on Physiological and Neurobehavioral Development of Male Rats with Perinatal Asphyxia. Offret C., Fliss I., Bazinet L., Marette A., Beaulieu L. Identification of A Novel Antibacterial Peptide from Atlantic Mackerel belonging to the GAPDH-Related Antimicrobial Family and Its In Vitro Digestibility. The most extensively studied proteases that are available in fish include pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and collagenase. Table 5 lists the most interesting fish enzymes because marketed/used for several applications. Fish protein hydrolysates market size was about USD 420 million globally in 2019 and it is supposed to increase of 4.5% CAGR between 2020 and 2026 [101]. Yahyaee R., Ghobadian B., Najafi G. Waste fish oil biodiesel as a source of renewable fuel in Iran. Evans M., Lewis E.D., Zakaria N., Pelipyagina T., Guthrie N. A randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study to evaluate the efficacy of a freshwater marine collagen on skin wrinkles and elasticity. Rubio-Rodrguez N., de Diego S.M., Beltrn S., Jaime I., Sanz M.T., Rovira J. Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from fish by-products: A comparison with other extraction methods. The review comprehensively illustrates the compounds that can be obtained from fish discards and byproducts, highlighting how this waste could become an enormous resource for the production of value-added products (e.g., peptides, proteins, collagen, chitin, oil, and enzymes), with several potential applications. Certainly, further investigations should be carried out to verify the real effectiveness, and to evaluate the different yields and quality levels possible correlated to the species of fish considered, as the different environmental conditions or particular adaptations could affect the composition of the scales themselves. Fish oil is found in the flesh, head, frames, fin, tail, skin and guts of fish in varying quantities. Guo L., Harnedy P.A., Zhang L., Li B., Zhang Z., Hou H., Zhao X., FitzGerald R.J. Better conserve natural resources, habitats, and energy. Indeed, chitin is often included in a complex matrix including proteins and calcium carbonate, with the establishment of strict interactions. Interestingly, new and more sustainable approaches are in progress, i.e., SFE, which we evidenced as emerging technology for fish oil recovery or the use of green and sustainable deep eutectic solvents. In-vessel composting can process large amounts of waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method and it can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat, animal manure, biosolids, food scraps). Recovery of a novel Ca-binding peptide from Alaska Pollack (, Jung W.-K., Park P.-J., Byun H.-G., Moon S.-H., Kim S.-K. They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. A good amount of proteins has been isolated from marine processing waste. The rise of aquaculture by-products: Increasing food production, value, and sustainability through strategic utilisation. Nie B., Ao H., Long T., Zhou J., Tang T., Yue B. Immobilizing bacitracin on titanium for prophylaxis of infections and for improving osteoinductivity: An in vivo study. In addition, collagen peptides from skin of Gadiformes fish species had chondroprotective effects in the osteoarthritis-induced model [171]. In their study, Sellami et al. This is the cases reported by Kumari et al. Purification and characterization of antioxidant peptide from hoki (, Jun S.-Y., Park P.-J., Jung W.-K., Kim S.-K. Purification and characterization of an antioxidative peptide from enzymatic hydrolysate of yellowfin sole (, Je J.-Y., Park P.-J., Kim S.-K. Antioxidant activity of a peptide isolated from Alaska pollack (. Oil from waste fish has been used also to induce the production of bacterial enzymes. Sathivel S., Bechtel P.J., Babbitt J., Smiley S., Crapo C., Reppond K.D., Prinyawiwatkul W. Biochemical and Functional Properties of Herring (, Ngo D.H., Ryu B., Vo T.S., Himaya S.W., Wijesekara I., Kim S.K. However, it is sometimes difficult to compare bioactivities between different peptides analysed with different techniques because radical scavenging activities are not always reported with the same units. Several studies demonstrated that this approach provides the same efficiency of oil extraction from fish waste but in a more sustainable way. Considering the recognised benefits of EPA and DHA on human health, alternative ways of supplying dietary omega-3 to the consumers have been explored. Marine Collagen: An Emerging Player in Biomedical applications. Characterization of chitin extracted from fish scales of marine fish species purchased from local markets in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Halim N., Yusof H., Sarbon N. Functional and bioactive properties of fish protein hydolysates and peptides: A comprehensive review. Fermentation is considered a more natural procedure for protein hydrolysis, and it has been used for centuries as a traditional preservation method, enhances flavor and taste of food but also increases its nutraceutical value [39]. Rumengan et al. The circular economy is now considered a pivotal component of the recovery plan [301], and in this context, herein, we present the possible concretization of this kind of economic model in the field of marine resources and fish products. Jabalia N., Mishra P., Chaudhary N. Applications, challenges and future prospects of proteases: An overview. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. For these reasons, several studies explored and confirmed the potential of fish waste oil for biodiesel production. Enzymes from fish waste and their applications. MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration. Zheng L.-Y., Zhu J.-F. Study on antimicrobial activity of chitosan with different molecular weights. Mice showed significantly reduced wrinkle formation, skin thickening, transepidermal water loss, skin hydration and prevented UVB-induced MMP-3 and -13 expression, and MMP-2 and -9. Moreover, PSC extracted from P. glauca skin was used to produce chitosancollagen composite coating. Upon reaction with a bioderived amine, this leads to the formation of nonisocyanate polyurethane materials. The general applications of chitin and chitosan have been extensively reviewed by several authors [10,42,200,201]. Pyun et al. A randomized triple-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study was performed to evaluate the efficacy of collagen from Pangasius hypophthalmus on skin wrinkles and elasticity. In particular, turbot byproducts (from turbot head, viscera, trimmings and frames) were subjected to alcalase hydrolysis obtaining fish protein with high yield of digestion, remarkable degrees of hydrolysis and high content of soluble protein. Chakraborty K., Joseph D. Cooking and pressing is an effective and eco-friendly technique for obtaining high quality oil from Sardinella longiceps. Collaboration is Key to Reducing Seafood Loss and Waste. Collagen peptides extracted from T. chalcogramma skin, which were obtained by simulating gastrointestinal digestion possessed antihypertensive properties (IC50 = 0.49 mg/mL) [122]. Liu J., Lyu F., Zhou X., Wang B., Wang X., Ding Y. Effect of animal age and conditioning method on the conversion of bovine hide into gelatine. Release Off. [107], in order to valorise farmed fish processing wastes, studied fish protein hydrolysates obtained by alcalase hydrolysis from turbot S. maximus head, viscera, trimming and frames. Fish frame protein hydrolysates are also a rich source of antioxidant peptides, including GSTVPERTHPACPDFN isolated from Hoki (Johnius belengerii) [146], N-terminal RPDFDLEPPY purified from yellowfin sole (L. aspera) [147], LPHSGY isolated from Alaska pollack hydrolysates MW < 1KDa [148]. Waste spider crab shell and derived chitin as low-cost materials for cadmium and lead removal. Kumari S., Rath P., Sri Hari Kumar A., Tiwari T.N. Ohba R., Deguchi T., Kishikawa M., Arsyad F., Morimura S., Kida K. Physiological Functions of Enzymatic Hydrolysates of Collagen or Keratin Contained in Livestock and Fish Waste. Moreover, peptides NHRYDR and GNRGFACRHA from Magalapis cordyla skin and Otolithes ruber skin, respectively, reduced PUFAs peroxidation [157]. Mohan S.V., Varjani S., Pant D., Sauer M., Chang J.S. Moreover, collagen drink promoted the expression of SOD1, SOD2, CAT genes, and improved both collagen and elastin production [162]. Wu W., Li B., Hou H., Zhang H., Zhao X. Preparation and functional evaluation of collagen oligopeptide-rich hydrolysate from fish skin with the serine collagenolytic protease from Pseudoalteromonas sp. Many techniques are used to treat fish wastes, such as mechanical, biotechnological techniques, ultrasound-assisted extraction, or microwave-assisted extraction technologies to be suitable for human and animal feeding. The selection of the most suitable method depends on different factors, especially by the nature of the waste and by the final application of the oil, whose biodiesel production and food supplements are the most common [46,231]. gave an important contribution to search for the available bibliographic information and to prepare the final version of the manuscript. Pyun H.-B., Kim M., Park J., Sakai Y., Numata N., Shin J.-Y., Shin H.-J., Kim D.-U., Hwang J.-K. This represents an advantageous feature in several applications, such as fermentations, silage and fish sauce, where significant amounts of salt are used; on the contrary, homologues from mammals are generally inhibited by NaCl [278]. A wide range of techniques have been used to extract oil from whole fish or fish waste and reported in several reviews [41,228,230]. [255] the physicochemical features of the fish-based biodiesel obtained from tilapia waste oil were checked in accordance with the standard requirements established by Brazilian National Petroleum Agency. Vieira G.H., Martin A.M., Saker-Sampaiao S., Omar S., Goncalves R.C. Suzuki A., Kato H., Kawakami T., Kodama Y., Shiozawa M., Kuwae H., Miwa K., Hoshikawa E., Haga K., Shiomi A., et al. Granito R.N., Renno A.C.M., Yamamura H., De Almeida M.C., Ruiz P.L.M., Ribeiro D.A. In the same study they demonstrated also that microwave-assisted transesterification reaction in the presence of KOH catalyst for 10 min at 65 C lead to an efficient conversion into biodiesel. Narendran R., Frankle W.G., Mason N.S., Muldoon M.F., Moghaddam B. Bai C., Wei Q., Ren X. Choonpicharn S., Tateing S., Jaturasitha S., Rakariyatham N., Suree N., Niamsup H. Identification of bioactive peptide from, Ngo D.-H., Kang K.-H., Ryu B., Vo T.-S., Jung W.-K., Byun H.-G., Kim S.-K. Angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory peptides from antihypertensive skate (. [130] analyzed ACE inhibitory and antioxidant activity of cod frame protein hydrolysates of 30, 10, 5 and 3 KDa. Generally, the physicochemical properties of chitin are investigated through techniques including IR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), but in some cases the approaches included more specific techniques. Selective Extraction of Collagen Peptides with High Purity from Cod Skins by Deep Eutectic Solvents. Current Research and Developments on Chitin and Chitosan in Biomaterial Science. Isolation and characterization of collagen and antioxidant collagen peptides from scales of croceine croaker (, Yang X.-R., Zhao Y.-Q., Qiu Y.-T., Chi C.-F., Wang B. The lipase gene family. Xu L., Dong W., Zhao J., Xu Y. The potential advantages of using enzymes include the development of industrial processes as alternatives to mechanical or chemical treatments which often cause damage to the product and reduce its recovery, ensuring better process control, and low energy requirements and costs. The refinement of these wastes through sustainable bioprocessing interventions can give rise to various circular bioeconomies within the seafood processing sector. Some fish digestive lipases are both stereospecific and enantiospecific, and for this reason they could be used in the synthesis of enantiomerically pure products that can be used as specialty pharmaceuticals or agrochemicals. Immunomodulatory and antioxidants properties of fixed combination of fish oil with plant extracts. At week 12, participants in the collagen consuming group reported improvements in overall skin score (9%) and wrinkle (15%), elasticity (23%), hydration (14%), radiance (22%), and firmness (25%) [161]. Current use of Peat, Plastic and Fertiliser Inputs in Organic Horticultural and Arable Crops Across Europe. conceptualized the idea and provided the framework for the document. This makes the improvement of waste management systems across the world critical to reducing plastic pollution. Oral Collagen Drink for Antiaging: Antioxidation, Facilitation of the Increase of Collagen Synthesis, and Improvement of Protein Folding and DNA Repair in Human Skin Fibroblasts. Hua and collaborators [89] prepared a bioactive collagen/chitosan complex using fish skin collagen and chitosan solution as raw materials. Byun H.-G., Kim S.-K. The experimental extraction procedure is a very delicate and determinant phase for the final application, because purity and crystallinity levels depend on it [188]. These enzymes are glycerol-ester hydrolases, which catalyse the hydrolysis of ester bonds in substrates, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesteryl esters, and vitamin esters [268]. Accessibility Choi B.K., Kim K.Y., Yoo Y.J., Oh S.J., Choi J.H., Kim C.Y. How much trash is that? Life cycle assessment of chitosan production in India and Europe. This enzyme catalyses the hydrolysis of the N-glycosylic bond between uracil and sugar, releasing an apyrimidinic site in uracil-containing single-stranded or double-stranded DNA, therefore it is a good candidate for several molecular biology applications. Development and biological activities of marine-derived bioactive peptides: A review. Marine organisms, including fish, are an excellent source of enzymes and could contribute to the total number of enzymes available on the world market. The internal organs, including stomach, pancreas, and intestines, are the most important fish byproducts in terms of the number of enzymes found, many of which are cold active, present high catalytic activities also at relatively low concentrations, and stability in a wide range of pH. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Nalinanon S., Benjakul S., Visessanguan W., Kishimura H. Tuna pepsin: Characteristics and its use for collagen extraction from the skin of threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp. Sriket C. Proteases in fish and shellfish: Role on muscle softening and prevention. Beheshti Foroutani M., Parrish C.C., Wells J., Taylor R.G., Rise M.L., Shahidi F. Minimizing marine ingredients in diets of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): Effects on growth performance and muscle lipid and fatty acid composition. J. Arnesen J.A., Gildberg A. Zhou T., Sui B., Mo X., Sun J. Multifunctional and biomimetic fish collagen/bioactive glass nanofibers: Fabrication, antibacterial activity and inducing skin regeneration in vitro and in vivo. The FO used is extracted from the by-products produced at fish processing plants, including heads, bones, skin, and . Chen X.-L., Peng M., Li J., Tang B.-L., Shao X., Zhao F., Liu C., Zhang X.-Y., Li P.-Y., Shi M., et al. Crude pepsin from Atlantic cod is often used for industrial descaling [277]. The different approach led to the detection of a more crystalline structure for chitosan than for chitin and fish scale, by confirming its possible use as food supplement, drug preparation and water treatment. Biochem. Chitosan is used in large quantities in the production of several consumer products, i.e., antiseptics, food items, cosmetics, medicines, and textiles, and is very attractive for its numerous biological properties and as a therapeutic agent because of its antibacterial and antifungal characteristics. The composite coating has been found to preserve important properties of Pagrus major fillet quality, such as drip loss, pH, and to reduce microbial growth during storage at 4 C [97]. Fish proteases could be also used for skin removal from fish, as an alternative method to mechanical or chemical treatments, which often involve damage or reduction of the recovered product [280]. Moreover, a fish collagen drink was tested for improvement of skin aging. Several studies demonstrated also the potential of fish oil as antioxidants. Collagenases have been isolated from epithelial, cartilaginous, bony tissues, and digestive tracts of several fish [43]. Chitin is a long chain odourless/tasteless amino polysaccharide of white or off-white colour in its pure state, composed of N-acetyl--D-glucosamine units and monomers attached via (14) linkages [179]. An important chitin derivative is the chitosan, obtained by deacetylation of chitin, and with a molecular structure in which the 2-amine-2-deoxy-D-glucopyranose units predominate [182]. Pei X., Yang R., Zhang Z., Gao L., Wang J., Xu Y., Zhao M., Han X., Liu Z., Li Y. In particular, GLPGLGPAGPK had antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [112]. After a procedure including deproteinization and demineralization, the yield of prepared chitin was found to be 22.36%, while for chitosan a final yield of 7.72% was achieved [194]. J. Gildberg A.R., Olsen R.L., Bjarnason J.B. Application of chitin and chitosan derivatives in the pharmaceutical field. Physiol. As reported by Theodore and colleagues [131], low MW peptides have generally higher ORAC values while high MW peptides have higher FRAP and DPPH radical scavenging activities [131]. Svenning R., Stenberg E., Gildberg A., Nilsen K. Biotechnological descaling of fish. The traditional methods of extracting and processing seafood waste and by-products involve chemical treatment with strong alkalis and acids, which cause a loss of functionality in the end-product, environmental pollution, and health hazards for operators (Gao et al., 2021).As a result, alternative methods based on enzyme and microbial fermentation are getting more attention due to their . The degree of deacetylation (DDA) is regarded as an important parameter for the effective application of chitosan, and the recognized good standard for a typical commercial chitosan ranges between 66% and 95% [195]. Including raw materials, transportation and manpower, the price of the fish oil fatliquor is about 1.98 USD/L, which can save 0.070.35 USD/L compared to the commercial fatliquoring agent, suggesting that tanneries would be inclined to employ fish waste oil-based fatliquoring process due to its benefits in terms of environmental safety and cost competitiveness. TCSP and TGGGNV from the cod Gadus microcephalus showed both anti-hypertensive and antioxidant properties [145]. Georgantelis D., Blekas G., Katikou P., Ambrosiadis I., Fletouris D.J. Muslim T., Rahman M., Begum H., Rahman M. Chitosan and Carboxymethyl Chitosan from Fish Scales of Labeo rohita. Moreover, intestinal protease extracted from bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) was used to hydrolyze hoki (Johnius belengerii) bones [174].